INDIAN MANAGEMENT VALUES & LEADERSHIP : LOOKING TO THE PAST FOR ANSWERS

Indian philosophy deals with life and existence of self-realization. Attainment of fearless bliss or pure consciousness is its ultimate objective. 

The Holy Gita is the essence of the Vedas, Upanishads. It is a universal scripture applicable to people of all temperaments and for all times. It is a book with sublime thoughts and practical instructions on Yoga, Devotion, Vedanta and Action.

The Gita’s advice can be useful in five areas of modern business. Tha Gita provides advice on mission and core values, the development of new capabilities, the importance of developing business connections and communication, and the duty of managers to maintain a purpose-centric perspective.

BHAGAVAD GITA

The Bhagavad Gita, written thousands of years ago, enlightens us on all managerial techniques One of the greatest contributions of India to the world is Holy Gita which is considered to be one of the first revelations from God. It provides “all that is needed to raise the consciousness of man to the highest possible level.” It reveals the deep, universal truths of life that speak to the needs and aspirations of everyone.

Arjuna got mentally depressed when he saw his relatives with whom he had to fight.( Mental health has become a major international public health concern now). The Bhagavad Gita was preached in the battle field Kurukshetra by Lord Krishna to Arjuna as a counselling to do his duty while multitudes of men stood by waiting. It has got all the management tactics to achieve the mental equilibrium and to overcome any crisis situation. The Bhagavad Gita can be experienced as a powerful catalyst for transformation.

The Holy Gita has become a secret driving force behind the unfoldment of one's life. This divine book will contribute to self reflection, finer feeling and deepen one's inner process. Then life in the world can become a real education—dynamic, full and joyful—no matter what the circumstance. What makes the Holy Gita a practical psychology of transformation is that it offers us the tools to connect with our deepest intangible essence and we must learn to participate in the battle of life with right knowledge.

Mind can be one's friend or enemy. Mind is the cause for both bondage and liberation. There is no theory to be internalized and applied in this psychology. Ancient practices spontaneously induce what each person needs as the individual and the universal coincide. The work proceeds through intellectual knowledge of the playing field (jnana yoga), emotional devotion to the ideal (bhakti yoga) and right action that includes both feeling and knowledge (karma yoga). With ongoing purification we approach wisdom. The Bhagavad Gita is a message addressed to each and every human individual to help him or her to solve the vexing problem of overcoming the present and progressing towards a bright future.

Management has become a part and parcel of everyday life, be it at home, in the office or factory and in Government. In all organizations, where a group of human beings assemble for a common purpose, management principles come into play through the management of resources, finance and planning, priorities, policies and practice. Management is a systematic way of carrying out activities in any field of human effort. Its task is to make people capable of joint performance, to make their weaknesses irrelevant, says the Management Guru Peter Drucker. It creates harmony in working together - equilibrium in thoughts and actions, goals and achievements, plans and performance, products and markets. It resolves situations of scarcity, be they in the physical, technical or human fields, through maximum utilization with the minimum available processes to achieve the goal. Lack of management causes disorder, confusion, wastage, delay, destruction and even depression. Managing men, money and materials in the best possible way, according to circumstances and environment, is the most important and essential factor for a successful management.

BHAGAVAD GITA - LEADERSHIP

"Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential."

                                                                                                                                                                Warren Bennis

Leadership has often made a difference between success and failure. In the words of Peter Drucker, "The only definition of a leader is someone who has followers." To gain followers requires influence but doesn't exclude the lack of integrity in achieving this. Indeed, it can be argued that several of the world's greatest leaders have lacked integrity and have adopted values that would not be shared by many people today.

The Gita provides leadership advice in a number of general areas including the importance of maintaining one’s proper role and duties, being proactive and acting with wisdom, working for the greater good, and engaging in self-sacrifice. When Arjuna questions his actions as a soldier, Krishna explains to him that each position, including soldier has a role to play in the cosmos. Leaders must be aware of that role and be prepared to respond to the responsibilities imposed by their position. As stated in the Gita, Perfection is attained when each attends diligently to his duty.

Leaders have a duty to effectively influence others, and this duty can manifest itself in a number of different approaches, however, the leader must maintain his/her values and not waver from those duties and values. Being true to oneself and one’s values is an essentially aspect of leadership according to the Gita. Equally important is acting in a manner that one wishes to have emulated throughout the organization. For whatever a great man does, others imitate. People conform to the standard which he has set.

The leader must be a good role model and express the values of the organization through his/her behavior. Leaders who profess one set of values and act according to another set of values are not acting in accordance with the Bhagavad Gita. When Arjuna questions his actions as a soldier, Krishna explains to him that each position, including soldier has a role to play in the cosmos. Leaders must be aware of that role and be prepared to respond to the responsibilities imposed by their position. As stated in the Gita, Perfection is attained when each attends diligently to his duty. Leaders have a duty to effectively influence others, and this duty can manifest itself in a number of different approaches, however, the leader must maintain his/her values and not waver from those duties and values. Being true to oneself and one’s values is an essentially aspect of leadership according to the Gita. The leader must be a good role model and express the values of the organization through his/her behavior. Leaders who profess one set of values and act according to another set of values are not acting in accordance with the Bhagavad Gita.

The Gita tells leaders that they will be forced from time to time to make difficult decisions, and that they must use their inner wisdom to guide them in making the correct decision. The Gita also implies that wisdom is a necessary precondition for the selection of good leaders. While training and development are important to organizational success, leadership qualities are viewed as being more innate and developed through introspection and meditation.

In the Bhagavad Gita, leaders act in the role of servant, by sacrificing their own interests over the interests of the group, managers are able to better achieve their purposes. The leader in the Gita tradition is a humanistic leader, a person who acts without self-gain, and who has great personal concerns for followers. Good leaders are filled with a positive force and seek to do good by treating others with compassion and kindness. The leader should act in a manner which at all times benefits the followers. The Gita also warns against the pursuit of material gain and greed. Krishna warns Arjuna not to focus on the outcomes of his actions but to be mindful of the actions themselves. Leaders must be aware of their motives and mindful of the effects of harmful motives on themselves and their followers. The purpose of the leader is to serve his/her followers in helping them to attain a higher level of performance.

BHAGAVAD GITA - MANAGEMENT BY VALUES

There is a need to re-examine some of the modern management concepts in the light of the Bhagavad Gita which is a primer of management-by-values.

Utilise scarce resources optimally

The first lesson of management science is to choose wisely and utilise scarce resources optimally. During the curtain raiser before the Mahabharata War, Duryodhana chose Sri Krishna's large army for his help while Arjuna selected Sri Krishna's wisdom for his support. This episode gives us a clue as to the nature of the effective manager - the former chose numbers, the latter, wisdom.

Nishkama Karma

A popular verse of the Gita advises “detachment” from the fruits or results of actions performed in the course of one's duty. Being dedicated work has to mean “working for the sake of work, generating excellence for its own sake.” If we are always calculating the date of promotion or the rate of commission before putting in our efforts, then such work is not detached. It is not “generating excellence for its own sake”  but working only for the extrinsic reward that may (or may not) result. Some people might argue that not seeking the business result of work and actions, makes one unaccountable. In fact, the Bhagavad Gita is full of advice on the theory of cause and effect, making the doer responsible for the consequences of his deeds. While advising detachment from the avarice of selfish gains in discharging one's accepted duty, the Gita does not absolve anybody of the consequences arising from discharge of his or her responsibilities.

Thus the best means of effective performance management is the work itself. Attaining this state of mind (called “nishkama karma”) is the right attitude to work because it prevents the ego, the mind, from dissipation of attention through speculation on future gains or losses.

Daivi Sampat – Divine Work Culture

An effective work culture is about vigorous and arduous efforts in pursuit of given or chosen tasks. Sri Krishna elaborates on two types of work culture –  “daivi sampat” or divine work culture and “asuri sampat”  or demonic work culture. Daivi work culture - involves fearlessness, purity, self-control, sacrifice, straightforwardness, self-denial, calmness, absence of fault-finding, absence of greed, gentleness, modesty, absence of envy and pride. Asuri work culture - involves egoism, delusion, personal desires, improper performance, work not oriented towards service.

Mere work ethic is not enough. The hardened criminal exhibits an excellent work ethic. What is needed is a work ethic conditioned by ethics in work. It is in this light that the counsel, “yogah karmasu kausalam” should be understood. “Kausalam” means skill or technique of work which is an indispensable component of a work ethic. “Yogah”  is defined in the Gita itself as “samatvam yogah uchyate” meaning an unchanging equipoise of mind (detachment.)

By making the equable mind the bed-rock of all actions, the Gita evolved the goal of unification of work ethic with ethics in work, for without ethical process no mind can attain equipoise.

Manager’s Mental Health

Sound mental health is the very goal of any human activity - more so management. Sound mental health is that state of mind which can maintain a calm, positive poise, or regain it when unsettled, in the midst of all the external vagaries of work life and social existence. Internal constancy and peace are the pre-requisites for a healthy stress-free mind. Some of the impediments to sound mental health are:

-Greed - for power, position, prestige and money.

-Envy - regarding others' achievements, success, rewards.

-Egotism - about one's own accomplishments.

-Suspicion, anger and frustration.

-Anguish through comparisons.

“Whatever the excellent and best ones do, the commoners follow,” says Sri Krishna in the Gita. The visionary leader must be a missionary, extremely practical, intensively dynamic and capable of translating dreams into reality. This dynamism and strength of a true leader flows from an inspired and spontaneous motivation to help others. Sri Krishna, by sheer power of his inspiring words, changes Arjuna's mind from a state of inertia to one of righteous action, from the state of what the French philosophers call “anomie” or even alienation, to a state of self-confidence in the ultimate victory of “dharma” (ethical action.)

Vedanta

“It is difficult to find happiness within ourselves but it is impossible to find it anywhere else.” 

Vedanta was originally a word used as a synonym for that part of the Veda known also as the Upanishads. By the 8th century CE, the word also came to be used to describe a group of philosophical traditions concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). The word Vedanta teaches that the believer's goal is to transcend the limitations of self-identity and realize one's unity with Brahman. Vedanta is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on two simple propositions:

1. Human nature is divine.
2. The aim of human life is to realize that human nature is divine.

The goal of Vedanta is a state of self-realization or cosmic consciousness. Historically and currently, it is assumed that this state can be experienced by anyone, but it cannot be adequately conveyed in language. The word Vedanta is a Sanskrit compound word meaning:

• veda = "knowledge" + anta = "end, conclusion": "the culmination of knowledge", or "end of the Veda" (i.e. "appendix to the Veda").
• Vedānta is also called Uttarā Mīmāṃsā, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purvā Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the Āraṇyakas (the "forest scriptures"), and the Upanishads, composed from ca. the 9th century BC until modern times.

Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta. 

All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the Upanishads, a set of philosophical and instructive Vedic scriptures, which deal mainly with forms of meditation. "The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta or "End of the Veda". They are considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also derived from some of the earlier Aranyakas. 

The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage Vyasa was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the Brahma Sūtras based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman – the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self existent, immanent and transcendent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being - is central to most schools of Vedānta. The concept of God or Ishvara is also there, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in how they identify God with Brahman. 

While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, what with its representative syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an "upanishad" and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita.  

Swami Vivekananda stressed that:

• Although God is the absolute reality, the world has a relative reality. It should therefore not be completely ignored.
• Conditions of abject poverty should be removed; only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.
• All religions are striving in their way to reach the ultimate truth. Narrow sectarian bickering should therefore be abandoned, and religious tolerance should be practiced — between different Hindu denominations, as well as Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, etc.

Vivekananda traveled to the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893, and became an influential figure in synthesising Eastern and Western thought. He played a major role in the spread of Vedanta to Western nations. His proponents claim that he made Vedanta living, by understanding how it could be applied to the modern world, and by investing it with his own spirit. For Vivekananda, Vedanta was not something dry or esoteric, but a living approach to the quest for self-knowledge. 

The Three Temperaments

Human thoughts are classified under: -

1. Tamas (Inactive)
2. Rajas (Active)
3. Sattwa (Transactive)

 The purpose of life is to raise yourself from tamas to rajas and from rajas to sattawa to reach Trans sattawa, your godhead. 

Vipassana 

Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā in the Buddhist tradition means insight into the nature of reality. A regular practitioner of Vipassana is known as a Vipassi (vipasya). Vipassana is one of Asia's most ancient techniques of meditation, attributed to Gautama Buddha. It is a way of self-transformation through self-observation and introspection. In English, vipassanā meditation is often referred to simply as "insight meditation". 

Vipassana is seeing things as they really are. It is not a blind faith or philosophy and has nothing to do with sectarian religion. Instead Vipassana is a practical method that can be applied by anyone of average intelligence. Its goal is to purify the mind, to eliminate the tensions and negativity that make us miserable. 

Concept of Yoga 

The word ‘Yoga’ comes from the term ‘Yuj’ meaning ‘union’, or ‘join’, which implies the ‘union of body, mind and soul’. Some theists understand this union to be the ‘union of the individual self with the Absolute Self, the union of the Atman with the ‘Brahman’. 

The basic text of Yoga is the Yogasutra of Patanjali (2^nd century B.C.). The book is said to consist of four padas or parts:

• the samadhipada, which deals with the nature, aims and forms of yoga, discusses the modifications of citta and elaborates on the different methods of attaining yoga (samadhi or concentration);
• the sadhanapada, which deals with the path of attaining samadhi through kriyayoga, the kleshas or mental states causing aflictions, the fruits of actions (karmaphala) and their painful nature, and the fourfold theme of suffering, its cause, its cessation and the means thereof;
• the vibhutipada gives an account of the inward aspects of yoga and the supernatural powers that may be acquired by the practice of yoga; and
• kaivalyapada, which describes the nature and the attitude that is required for liberation, the nature of the goal of life and the other world, and the reality of the transcendent self.

The training of a Yogi is divided into eight stages (Ashtanga Yoga). By practicing all these stages and techniques of Yoga, the impurities are destroyed and there is an enlightenment in the individual.  

The eight limbs of Yoga are:

1.  Yama - (Restraints)

2.  Niyama - (Observances)

3.  Asana - (Posture)

4.  Pranayama - (Control and regulation of prana)

5.  Pratyahara - (Sense withdrawal)

6.  Dharana - (Concentration)

7.  Dhyana - (Meditation)

8.  Samadhi - (Self-realisation) 

As it developed in India, it came to be associated with the development of Hinduism and its philosophy. Yet in its essence it has always remained away from any religious doctrines or dogmas and never demanded acceptance of any specific belief system. It has always remained as a pathway to realisation of Truth, open for all the people professing different faiths belonging to different religions and different races. In essence, it is a path of spiritual enquiry, awakened by the earnest desire for having a deeper understanding of Life and the entire phenomenon associated with it.

The literal meaning of the word Yoga in Sanskrit is INTEGRATION. In this sense, Yoga represents a process through which one can learn how to live in the most integrated way. It involves therefore the process of identification and then elimination of all that would contribute to disintegration. It teaches one to integrate the body, mind and soul in oneself. It further goes on to teach integration of individual goals and objectives with the social and organisational goals. It is also a way of life that integrates the phenomenal with the transcendental, the individual soul with the Divine. When taken in this sense it becomes a continuous process, requiring constant vigilance and involving all the aspects of life.  

Yoga system nicely embodies Indian concepts of value and spirituality and plays a vital role in value education. The first thing that comes to our mind when we speak about yoga is that ‘The  Yoga System’ is not only a fine ,divine art and science as dealing with the human being but also the functioning of the body ,mind, intelligence and it also explains and defines so meticulously various behavioural pattern of an individual. 

Yoga is primarily a self-culturing process, a way of life. It is a process which facilitates one to turn inwards. Yoga-sadhana is a journey from the gross physical body to more subtle aspects of inner-self. The ultimate aim being self-realisation or what’s popularly known as ‘Kaivalya’ or ‘Samadhi’  .It is predominantly concerned with maintaining an undisturbed, equanimous state of mind at all times. Every yoga school of thought emphasizes the importance of steadying the mind because as the saying goes, ‘Only when the water is still, can you see through it.’

Spiritual Foundations

Whatever way one may define, it may be termed as an ideal that reckons all reality in essence as spiritual. When simply stated, spirituality is one's character or quality that makes one transcend the barriers of worldliness, caste, creed and sensuality; and realize one's connection with the Truth. 

Spirituality has been defined in numerous ways – 

A belief in a power operating in the universe that is greater than oneself.

A sense of interconnectedness with all living creatures.

An awareness of the purpose and meaning of life and the development of personal, absolute values. 

Spirituality is the recognition and realization of the Being, the reality in oneself and all others. The integration of the body, mind and spirit in a human being, which results in facilitating the realization of a goal in life, makes him a spiritual being. In order to realize oneself, it becomes necessary to be aware of oneself. This awareness comes to us in various ways and forms and through various means, the significant ones being the scriptures and religious texts of India and the world. As an innate capacity that exists in every human being, psychologically healthy spirituality is not limited to any one set of doctrines or practices. From a psychological perspective, spirituality is a universal experience, not a universal theology. 

Spirituality is understood by many as the act of involvement or state of awareness or devotion to a higher being or life philosophy.  It is not always related to conventional religious beliefs. Spirituality is, however, an expression of what is sacred bringing with it an alignment with everything that is sacred. It is the experience of a reality that transforms every individual and inculcates in an individual, qualities such as love, compassion and ethical integrity, along with a sense of harmony and justice.  

CONCLUSION

Indian Management is primarily based on spiritual values and the inherent spirituality of the human is manifested in all his activities of life, whether it is a social, cultural, economic or religious activity.  

The Bhagavad Gita, the ancient spiritual text contains recommendations for the modern practice of management. While a casual reading of the manuscript would leave one feeling that the book is about the personal struggles involved in engaging in warfare, the Gita represents much more. The Gita represents the struggles encountered by all humans in everyday activities, including the struggles of leadership.

The Bhagavad Gita provides advice to modern day leaders and suggests important leadership qualities. The Gita can be a starting point for greater understanding. Hence the need to understand and accept Indian Management as holistic, complete and pragmatic and the need to learn the management styles of Indian industry to reiterate the spiritual essence of Indian Management.

Indian Management thought is emerging slowly but surely and now thinkers in India have started management practices best suited to Indian ethos.

MOTIVATION AS VIEWED IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY: CONCEPTS OF ARTHA, DHARMA, KAMA & MOKSH

“He is able who thinks he is able.”
                                                       Gautama Buddha


• Motivation helps you start
• Motivation helps you move on in difficult times
• Motivation helps you finish

Motivation refers to those forces operating within an individual which impels an individual to act or deter from a certain act. Acting without direction is meaningless and purposeless. 

The framework of Dharma actually gives man a sense of security, as he does not have to live in a dilemma all the time. The four Purusharthas not only make man aware of the legitimacy of his need and wants, but also guide him on the path of Dharma in order to help him attain his goals. This is where the theory of Purusharthas differs from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, where the awareness of the hierarchy of needs is allowed in man, but the means to achieve them is totally in the control of man himself. Purusha means human being and artha means object or objective. Purusharthas means objectives of man.

It is the needs that develop the individual’s attitudes about the environment and about himself. The individual has to develop the capacity to handle many needs simultaneously. The personal needs of individuals vary in intensity from person to person and vary daily within the same person too. They depend on situations, both physical and emotional. Thus, needs are looked at as ‘motivators’ by many psychologists. It becomes necessary to understand the psychologists’ views on needs in relation to Management. If needs are understood as motivators, they are also recognised as stressors giving rise to mental strain, physical discomfort and sicknesses, cultural disturbances and physical and mental inequilibrium.

Man determines his goals in life based on his needs, according to modern psychologists. It leads to the necessary involvement of man in the various activities that one would engage in, to survive and progress. The terms ‘needs’, ‘wants’, ‘drives’, ‘urges’, ‘expectations’, ‘emotions’ and ‘motives’, are used interchangeably and synonymously by many.

Prof. Abraham Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs is more expounded as a theory of motivation by western schools of thought. It is well accepted in developing management models in industrial houses. Today the contention is not that Maslow’s theory is erroneous, but that it is incomplete. It is a fact that man has needs and that these needs can be graded. But it also needs to be realised that man’s gradation of his own needs is dynamic, and it varies from situation to situation for the same individual. Moreover, the philosophy of life determines his priorities in life and the importance given to the needs depends to a large extent on these priorities. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs becomes necessary to be understood and critically evaluated in the context of the dynamic man and his constantly changing environment.

The will to work depends largely on how much the individual feels that he belongs in the organisation. The needs, desires and aspirations of all in the organisation should be taken into consideration for creating an environment that motivates everyone to work. All employees are subject to their own perceptions, beliefs, viewpoints, opinions and emotions which motivate them to work or prevent them from working to their fullest capacity. All members of the organisation strive to satisfy their various needs through the work and activity that they are involved in. Maslow, D. McGregor, Fredrick Herzberg and many other psychologists have discussed human needs and listed them in a hierarchy, suggesting that the five main ones are the following –

• physiological needs

• safety and security

• love and belongingness

• self-esteem

• self-actualisation

The acceptance of these theories as the final word in understanding human behaviour and human motivation results in limiting oneself. It is not enough to believe that people are always motivated by external stimuli alone. These stimuli have limited and temporary effect on people. Hence, the need to be self-motivated is encouraged.

Indian ethos teaches one the art of motivating oneself and others from within. One needs to follow the Vedic mantra for progress:

‘chara eva iti, chara eva iti’, i.e. ‘move on, move on’.

There are various suggestions that one can derive from Indian thought to motivate oneself. The four values or goals accepted in Indian philosophy are universal and comprehensive in nature. The affirmative attitude of Hinduism towards life has been emphasized by its recognition of four legitimate and basic desires. They are, as given in the Agni Purana –

1. Dharma – Duty/ Righteousness/ Morality

2. Artha – Wealth/ Material Prosperity and Just Political Order

3. Kama – Instinctual desires and needs

4. Moksha – Salvation/ Liberation, from the bondages of the soul/ freedom through communion with God or the Infinite. It could be interpreted as self–actualisation and self–realisation, as is done by many Indian thinkers, in order to give it a more pragmatic approach. Liberation is also called as Mukti, Kaivalya or Nirvana in the other schools of thought as in Jainism and Buddhism.

These four attainments of life are collectively known as Purusharthas. According to Hindu way of life, a man should strive to achieve the above four chief objectives (Purusharthas) in his life. Of these, the first three belong to the realm of worldly values; the fourth is called the supreme value. The fulfilment of the first three paves the way for Moksha.

DHARMA

"Dharma is the law of conduct by means of which man attains worldly prosperity as well as final beatitude or Moksha".

                                                                                                       Sri Shankaracharya

Dharma actually means that which upholds this entire creation. Dharma is a very complicated word, for which there is no equivalent word in any other language, including English. The key to individual and social ethics of Hinduism is the conception of Dharma, whose full implications cannot be conveyed by such English words as religion, duty or righteousness. Derived from a root which means to support, the word signifies the law of inner growth by which a person is supported in his present state of evolution and is shown the way to future development. A person's Dharma is not imposed by society or decreed by an arbitrary God, but is something with which he is born as a result of his actions in previous lives.

It is a Divine law that is inherent and invisible, but responsible for all existence. Dharma exists in all planes, in all aspects and at all levels of creation. In the context of human life, dharma consists of all that an individual undertakes in harmony with Divine expectations and his own inner spiritual aspirations, actions that would ensure order and harmony with in him and in the environment in which he lives. Since this world is deluded, a human being may not know what is right and what is wrong or what dharma is and what adharma is. Hence he should rely upon the scriptures and adhere to the injunctions contained there in. In short, dharma for a human being means developing divine virtues and performing actions that are in harmony with the divine laws.

Dharma is considered to be the first cardinal aim because it is at the root of everything and upholds everything. Any action performed without observing dharma is bound to bring misery and suffering and delay ones salvation. The best way to know what dharma is and what is adharma, is to follow the religious scriptures such as the Bhagavad gita and the Upanishads or any other scripture that contains the words of God.

But most human beings often forget dharma and moksh and run after worldly pleasures, often resorting to unrighteous means. As a result they suffer all through their lives. Misery is the inevitable result of adharma. Observing this sad plight of the people, Vyasa says in the Mahabharata:

"Artha and Kama, which all people desire so much, can be attained from Dharma itself. Why then do they not follow Dharma?"

Dharma determines a man's proper attitude toward the outer world and governs his mental and physical reactions in a given situation. It is his code of honour.

Dharma is the basis of both individual progress and social welfare.

ARTHA

Artha means wealth. Hinduism recognizes the importance of material wealth for the overall happiness and well being of an individual. A house holder requires wealth, because he has to perform many duties to uphold dharma and ensure the welfare and progress of his family and society. A person may have the intention to uphold the dharma, but if he has no money he would not be able to perform his duties and fulfill his dharma. Hinduism therefore rightly places material wealth as the second most important objective in human life.

Hinduism advocates austerity, simplicity and detachment, but does not glorify poverty. Hinduism also emphasizes the need to observe dharma while amassing the wealth. Hinduism believes that both spiritualism and materialism are important for the salvation of human beings. It is unfortunate that Hinduism came to be associated more with spiritualism, probably because of the influence of Buddhism, where as in truth Hinduism does not exclude either of them.

As Swami Vivekananda rightly said religion is not for the empty stomachs. Religion is not for those whose main concern from morning till evening is how to make both ends meet. Poverty crushes the spirit of man and renders him an easy prey to wicked forces.

In ancient India Artha shastras (scriptures on wealth) provided necessary guidance to people on the finer aspects of managing their wealth. Kautilya's Artha Shastra, which is probably a compilation of many independent works, gives us a glimpse of how money matters were handled in ancient India.

Dharma should be strictly adhered to for the attainment of worldly prosperity. Wealth must be earned or acquired according to Dharma.

KAMA

Kama in a wider sense means desire and in a narrow sense, sexual desire or the enjoyment of sense pleasure. 

Hinduism prescribes fulfillment of sexual passions for the householders and abstinence from it for the students and ascetics who are engaged in the study of the scriptures and in the pursuit of Brahman. Kama covers a vast area- from the enjoyment of conjugal love, without which the creation cannot be maintained, to the appreciation of art, music and poetry. Sense pleasures, if not pursued according to Dharma, degenerate into sensuality.

The Bhagavad gita informs us that desire is an aspect of delusion and one has to be wary of its various movements and manifestations. The best way to deal with desires is to develop detachment and perform desireless actions without seeking the fruit of ones actions and making an offering of all the actions to God. This way our actions would not bind us to the cycle of births and deaths.

Wealth and sense pleasure, which are only means to an end, are valuable in so far as their enjoyment creates a genuine yearning for spiritual freedom in the mind of the enjoyer.

MOKSHA

If dharma guides the life of a human being from below acting as the earth, showing him the way from above like a star studded mysterious sky is moksha. Dharma constitutes the legs of a Purusha that walk upon the earth; both artha and kama constitute his two limbs active in the middle region; while moksha constitutes the head that rests in the heaven.

Human life is very precious because of all the beings in all the worlds, only human beings have the best opportunity to realize the higher self. It is also precious because it is attained after many hundreds and thousands of lives. Rightly, salvation should be its ultimate aim.

Man, who in essence is spirit, cannot be permanently satisfied with worldly experiences. After fulfilling all his worldly desires and responsibilities a man still wants to know how he can suppress his inner restlessness and attain peace. So at last he gives up attachment to the world and seeks freedom through the knowledge of the spirit.

Moksha actually means absence of moha or delusion. Delusion is caused by the inter play of the triple gunas. When a person overcomes these gunas, he attains liberation. The gunas can be overcome by detachment, self control, surrender to god and offering ones actions to God.

If dharma is the center of the wheel of human life, artha and kama are the two spokes and moksha is its circumference. If dharma is at the center of human life, beyond moksha there is no human life, but only a life divine.

Mahabharata, Salya Parva, Section LX., Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Balarama (who was conversant with the rules of morality) said:

Morality is well practised by the good. Morality, however, is always afflicted by two things, viz., the desire of Profit entertained by those that covet it, and the desire for Pleasure cherished by those that are wedded to it. Whoever without afflicting Morality and Profit, or Morality and Pleasure, or Pleasure and Profit, follows all three, viz., Morality, Profit and Pleasure, always succeeds in obtaining great happiness.

The four Purusharthas are also like the four wheels of a chariot called human life. They collectively uphold it and lead it. Each influences the movement of the other three, and in the absence of any one of them, the chariot comes to a halt.

The Purusharthas signify an integrated approach to the problems of humanity. The recognition of the integration of the body, mind and soul is clearly evident. The harmonious development of these three aspects in man alone leads to a healthy, integrated and purposive individual. The emphasis is on the enhancement of both the personality and the social development of the individual. In any social group or organisation, if individuals have to live with co–operation and peace, with the attainment of common goals and objectives in mind, then it is necessary that every individual is aware of his real self. The theory of Purushartha actually maps the worthwhile ends of all actions of man, aiming towards the wellbeing of man.

According to Maslow, man moves on to the next level of needs only after satisfying the earlier level of needs. Indian thought, however, does not subscribe to this view, as it is believed that man can progress to the higher level of needs even after giving up the lower needs. Maslow believed that a hungry individual could never be a good student. Indian thought contradicts him here and puts forth the view that one can attain even transcendence if one was able to give up the lower passions and focus on the attainment of higher pursuits. This view makes man recognised more as a moral and spiritual being than just a biological and rational being. It helps us to understand and accept man’s spiritual needs more sensibly. Man as a purposive and conscious being, with a system of values to guide him, is clearly depicted in the Indian thought. The concept of Purusharthas gives us the holistic view of man in Indian thought.

The term ‘purushartha’ literally signifies “what is sought by men”, so that it may be taken as equivalent to a human end or purpose. The qualifying word ‘human’ may give the impression that the term is not applicable to ends which man seeks in common with the other animals; but this is not really so, for we find it used with reference to seeking even ends like food and rest. The qualification is hence, explained in a different way. Man, like animals, acts instinctively in various situations. However, he also exercises his sense of discrimination and discretion, when he makes conscious choices, using his sense of reason and values. Even choices that he makes, to satisfy his natural wants and needs, can be done with deliberation. He sets before himself ends to be achieved and then sets about fulfilling them.

The Purushartha ultimately leads man to the state of self realisation. The concept of Purushartha leads us to the awareness that all man’s activities are aimed at the attainment of permanent, eternal and absolute peace and bliss. The acceptance of these four values as goals by our Indian thinkers makes it clear that in our culture and tradition, man’s physical wellbeing is considered naturally necessary. Man’s bodily needs have to be taken care of in a manner that it leads to his mental, moral and spiritual growth. The gratification of his basic needs does not happen in the same manner as in the case of animals, as it is done instinctively in the case of the latter. Man is conscious of his needs and fulfils them with a higher purpose in mind. His functioning is also within a moral framework that is value based. The four values of dharma, artha, kama and moksha, thus, aim at the realisation of the maximum, exhaustive and comprehensive growth and welfare of the individual and the community.

One needs to question oneself on the role that one is playing in the organisation. If one decides to follow instructions, obey rules and be at the job for a stipulated time as expected of him, his work becomes monotonous and routine. This makes him bored and demotivated. On the other hand, if he has realised his ‘varna’ and ‘ashrama’ in the organisation, he will enjoy work as ‘svadharma’. He will move from the sthula (gross) to the sukshma. His gradation of desires and wants that motivate him to work will change, as the focus will shift from the ‘I’ to the ‘Us’. Working with a broader perspective and for higher purposes gives him a sense of fulfillment. He will be not just a ‘doer’ but a ‘performer’. He will mobilise resources, initiate actions, take decisions, and promote change. The need to express himself as a spiritual being with the potentiality to create will bring in sustained motivation. The need for external motivators will decrease and the empowered individual becomes exemplary. One who needed to be continuously motivated will be a great motivator to others. The positive energy and the positivity in attitude of such a person will be contagious enough for the environment itself to be dynamic.

Every individual has all the varnas in himself. When an individual is learning or studying, then he is a Brahmin. To elaborate on this point, it is necessary to understand that a child is a student right from birth, and is, hence a Brahmin. The Brahmin in the individual is continuously alive as he is constantly learning various skills and talents for himself and his family, or even his organisation. When he is working to protect himself or his family, clan, kith and kin, he is a Kshatriya. He becomes the Kshatriya when he indulges in physical activities that are serving to protect and preserve his kind. His job, profession and all other economic activities that are needed to sustain himself and his family makes him the Vaishya. When he is working to earn for himself and his family, indulging in economic activities, he is a Vaishya. When he works to maintain Shauca (cleanliness), by keeping himself and his environment clean, then he is a Shudra. Man needs to learn to respect all varnas, as he too is categorised on the basis of his own roles and activities in the same manner. The varna categorisation system which is considered the greatest blotch on Indian culture by many thinkers needs to be re- evaluated. If Lord Krishna himself has proclaimed to the world the significance of the varnas, it needs no further reiteration. The system needs to be understood in its right perspective. It has in fact, made it clear that the dignity of labour in India is exemplary to the entire world.

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                      Swapna Verma

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Hinduism and Meaning of Life: Purusharthas, Dharma, Artha, Karma and Moksha, www. hinduwebsite.com

2. Management by Values - S.K. Chakraborthy

3. Management Theory – Rao M. & Rao S

4. Management Value-Oriented Holistic Approach – S.A. Sherlekar

5. Indian Ethos in Management – Edited by P.K.Ghosh

6. Indian Management: Its Spiritual Foundations, Geetha Mohan.

7. From The Mahabharata Salya Parva, Section LX. Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

8. Explanations drawn from the teachings of Swami Nikhilananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math

9. India Divine : Articles on Hinduism, www.indiadivine.org